The University of Aberdeen and Marine Scotland Science recently organised the 9^th UK Young Coastal Scientists and Engineers Conference (YCSEC), with two of our oceanographers, Rory O’Hara Murray and Bee Berx, on the local organising committee. The conference was held at the University’s Fraser-Noble Building on March 25^th and 26^th 2013.  Scientists and engineers came from across the UK to present results from their PhD-studies, post-doctoral work, or their research within governmental organisations and private companies. The conference started off with a great key-note lecture by Prof. Peter Thorne, from the National Oceanography Centre,Liverpool, on his work on sediment transport processes and the application of acoustic measurement techniques. This was followed by a number of oral presentations ranging in topic from the influence of structure shape on scour patterns to numerical modelling of larval connectivity to the tidal energy budget for the Pentland Firth. During the poster session on the first day, presenters had the opportunity to attract the audience to their poster by a 1-minute introduction on a soap-box.

It was a great conference for all involved, with early-career coastal scientists and engineers having the opportunity to share their research and network. 

All attendants at YCSEC 2013

From the Oceanography Group, both Berit Rabe and I presented at the conference. Berit gave an oral presentation on the study of circulation and sea lice distribution in Loch Linnhe (the outcomes of an on-going multi-disciplinary study in the Aquaculture and Fish Health Science Programme) and I presented a poster on the long-term monitoring data from our coastal locations with co-authors Sarah Hughes, Bee Berx and Matt Geldart. The poster focussed on the long-term trends that we observe in the time series and the information that this data could reveal to us.

Location of coastal monitoring stations. The stations labelled in bold font are our longest time series. Millport dates back to 1909, Fair Isle dates back to 1979 and Peterhead dates back to 1977.

Temperature has been measured at the coastal monitoring stations for many years, with the oldest record dating back to 1909 in Millport. Since the dataset began in Millport we can see an overall increase in surface temperatures, but the question remains – why are these coastal waters warming? Is it due to atmospheric temperature increases? Or is there a change in the waters flowing into the area? The answers to these questions are still to be worked out.

Heat can be gained and lost from the seas through either vertical (incoming solar radiation, energy radiated back from the ocean, heat loss by evaporation or heat exchange by conduction across the air-sea interface) or horizontal heat transfer (through advection in currents).

In any given location the balance between these vertical and horizontal fluxes produces a net heat flux – whereby there is either net heat gain into, or net heat loss from the seas. Despite daily and seasonal changes in the heat fluxes, on average there should be a heat balance. Therefore when we can see changes that are occurring in the sea surface temperature at our coastal stations we can begin to think about how these changes are connected with changes in atmospheric and oceanographic conditions. A lot more work is required before we can fully understand these connections.

I was delighted that during the closing remarks of the conference my poster was awarded the ‘Best Poster’ prize.

For the last ten years, sampling for the Marine Scotland Science (MSS) Coastal Ecosystem Monitoring Programme at Stonehaven has been undertaken by scientists on board the catamaran Temora.

Raymond Cargill, skipper of the Temora, will be retiring at Christmas. Raymond’s local knowledge, dedication and skill will be sorely missed by MSS, as will his readiness to turn out at anytime to help with the vessel, whatever the weather!

We wish him a long and happy retirement.

Raymond Cargill on board M.R.V.Temora

The Temora,  a Blyth 33 GRP catamaran, was built in 1992 and used as a leisure boat until being purchased by the laboratory in 2003. She  has since undergone numerous modifications that have seen her evolve into an extremely versatile vessel, capable of undertaking a wide range of local monitoring activities required by Marine Scotland Science (MSS).

 More information about Temora  and  coastal ecosystem monitoring at MSS can be found at

  http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/295194/0099702.pdf

  and

  http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/295194/0099701.pdf

  Submitted by John Dunn and Sheila Fraser

Phytoplankton data from six coastal ecosystem monitoring sites operated by Marine Scotland Science are presented.  Some similar patterns of change in the phytoplankton community have been observed at these sites most of which have been in operation for the last 10 years.  For example, since 2005 the abundance of the spring bloom diatom Skeletonema has increased around the Scottish coast. In contrast,  the abundance of the summer dinoflagellate Ceratium has decreased over the last 10 years.

The report is free to download and can be accessed here (http://www.ices.dk/pubs/crr/crr313/ICES%20313%20-WEB.pdf).

Ceratium furca

Skeletonema spp

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-north-east-orkney-shetland-19716141

Marine Scotland scientists sampled the foam and sea water around the village of Footdee. Samples were examined microscopically to analyse the phytoplankton (very small algae) present.

Analysis of the sea water showed the phytoplankton present (diatoms and small flagellates) to be typical of the autumn community present in the North East of Scotland. A species of phytoplankton, called Phaeocystis globosa, which has been associated with foam events in the Netherlands, was not observed.

The foam contained a lot of detritus as well as some very small phytoplankton cells. This is consistent with the foam event being caused by the breakdown of organic matter, probably as a result of the turbulence caused by the high winds on Monday and Tuesday

Submitted by Eileen Bresnan and Sheila Fraser

The first is a review of previously published information concerning the Firth of Clyde ecosystem. The report has found that “while the Clyde has clearly been impacted by human activities, it supports significant quantities of fish and is demonstrating some signs of recovery”.

A summary of the report can be found at:  http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2012/06/FirthClyde19062012                  The full review can be accessed as HTML or in pdf format by following this link: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2012/06/7562/0

The second is a publication concerning the distribution of zooplankton prey of forage fish in the Firth of Forth.

A summary of the report can be found at: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2012/08/2345                                         The full review can be accessed as HTML or in pdf format by following this link: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2012/08/2345/0

When species of plants and animals occur unexpectedly in areas outside their normal range they are called “non-native species”.  Examples of how non-native species can be introduced to new areas are by accidentally travelling on an aeroplane or ship (e.g the black rat), or when fish or shellfish imported for the aquaculture industry escape (e.g the Pacific oyster).

In most cases non-native species do not cause any problems in their new environment. However, because they are newcomers to the region they have the potential to live and breed without the same dangers of  predators, pests or diseases that have evolved to limit the native population. This means that they may be able to survive better than the local species, taking away their food resources and habitats and lessening their numbers while multiplying rapidly themselves. This can have a major impact on an area’s ecosystem and biodiversity.

In aquaculture, the damage to the farmed population may have a severe negative impact on its economy.  In these situations they are called “invasive non-native species”.  Examples of invasive non-native species include the carpet sea squirt Didemnum vexillum, the killer shrimp Dikerogammarus villosus and Japanese Knotweed Fallopia japonica.

 What is Bio-fouling?

Shipping is the most common route by which non-native species are introduced into the UK marine environment. Vessels can transport species to new areas in two ways, through the discharge of ballast water or through biofouling.  Biofouling occurs when species attach to the hull, sea chest, anchor chains or other structures on a ship and are transported as unwelcome passengers around the world.

Barnacles growing on a ship's sea chest

Mussels growing around a ship's anodes

Studying Non-native Species and Biofouling at Marine Scotland Science 

Previous posts on this blog have explained the monitoring of marine phytoplankton and zooplankton at Marine Scotland Science. Experts performing the analysis of these samples are aware of the importance of invasive non-native species and are alert to their presence.

Scientists at Marine Scotland Science have been involved in the Marine Aliens II project, a joint collaboration with various other institutes in the UK.  During this research, settling panels made from a special type of polypropylene were lowered into the water at different marinas throughout the country. The panels were left for sets of  either two or eight weeks before being collected. Scientists then identified and counted the different types of animals that had attached to them.

A polystyrene panel before being lowered into a marina

A polystyrene panel after submersion in a marina for 8 weeks

Scientists at Marine Scotland Science have also been investigating the biofouling present on vessels operating in the North Sea.  Vessels arriving in Scottish dry docks have been inspected for signs of biofouling and samples collected when it has been suspected. All the various organisms collected have been identified by experts in the laboratory, thus improving our knowledge of the species that are being transported around our waters by shipping.

A scientist scrapes biofouling from a ship's hull

What the Studies Have Shown 

No new non-native species have been recorded from the biofouling or Marine Aliens II surveys. However, non-native species that have already been recorded in British waters were observed. These included the Japanese skeleton shrimp Caprella mutica (native to Japan), Darwin’s barnacle Elminius modestus (native to Australia) and Bugula simpex, a bryozoan originating from either the Mediterranean or North America.

Common species collected from vessels included barnacles, mussels, amphipods and bryozoans.  Species that settled onto the panels included sea squirts and bryozoans.

Japanese skeleton shrimp

Darwin’s barnacle

Did you Know? 

The cost of invasive non-native species to the British economy is estimated at £1.7 billion per year.

 Further Information: 

More information on invasive species can be found at:

 http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Environment/Wildlife-Habitats/InvasiveSpecies

Submitted by Lyndsay Brown and Sheila Fraser

 A number of different phytoplankton species causing HABs are routinely detected in Scottish waters. Examination of  old scientific literature can find records of HABs being present in this region over a century ago and scientists at Marine Scotland Science consider them a natural part of the Scottish phytoplankton community.

 The evolutionary purpose of these algal toxins is not clear. It was suggested that the toxins may act as a zooplankton deterrent to prevent them grazing on the phytoplankton cells. The production of toxins might also act as a mating signal between two different cells of the same species. Shellfish feeding on toxin-producing phytoplankton species can accumulate large quantities of toxins in their tissue. Although shellfish are not affected by the toxins, subsequent consumption by birds, seals or humans can lead to severe health implications. To protect consumers, an EU directive was implemented, requiring all member states to test their shellfish for the presence of algal toxins. In Scotland this is rigorously implemented by the Food Standards Agency and, as a result, shellfish placed on the market are safe for human consumption.

 In Scottish waters, three main types of shellfish toxins are commonly detected.

 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) Toxins

 PSP toxins are powerful neurotoxins produced by dinoflagellates from the genus Alexandrium.  There are more than 20 known PSP toxins, the most potent being saxitoxin.

Alexandrium cells may produce the PSP-inducing toxin saxitoxin compound.

The chemical structure of saxitoxin is shown above

 

Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) Toxins

Domoic acid is the toxin that causes ASP and is produced by the diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia. During the late 1990s, high concentrations of this toxin in King Scallops (Pecten maximus) resulted in prolonged closures of Scottish offshore scallop fishing beds causing a severe economic impact on the industry. 

Pseudo-nitzchia cells may produce the ASP-inducing toxin domoic acid

The structure of domoic acid is shown above

Lipophilic shellfish toxins (LSTs)

 There are a number of different types of lipophilic shellfish toxins. The most common in the Scottish waters are the diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins such as okadaic acid which can cause gastrointestinal problems. Occurrence of DSP toxins in shellfish has been associated with the genus Dinophysis and Prorocentrum lima.

 ( Caption: ) Dinophysis cells (above left) may produce the DSP-inducing toxin okadaic acid. The structure of okadaic acid is shown (above right).

 Other lipophilic shellfish toxins (known as azaspiracids, yessotoxins and pectenotoxins) have also been detected in Scottish shellfish but harvesting closures as a result of high levels of these toxins are not as common.

Dinophysis cells may produce the DSP-inducing toxin okadaic acid

The structure of okadaic acid is shown above

Biotoxin studies at MSS

 Scientists at MSS have been involved in a project developing the use of SPATT (Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking) to detect the presence of biotoxins which may be released into the sea by harmful algae. SPATT has the dimensions and appearance of a tea bag filled with a resin capable of binding to a wide range of toxins. Deployment of SPATT bags generally occurs on a weekly basis at several locations across Scottish coastal waters. At the laboratory, the toxins are washed off the resin using a solvent and then identification and quantification of the diverse toxins is performed using dedicated analytical instrumentation. This simple monitoring technique provides MSS scientists with very useful information  regarding toxins diversity at various locations across the Scottish inshore waters throughout the year. Continuous SPATT monitoring, in combination with phytoplankton analysis, will help MSS scientists to generate data which could help reveal trends of toxic events around Scotland.

A SPATT bag filled with resin before deployment at Loch Ewe

Did you know?

 The seaweed Chondria armata has also been seen to produce domoic acid. In Japanese folklore it is used in very small doses as a treatment for pinworm infestation.

 Because blooms of toxic dinoflagellates sometimes turn the sea red or brownish-red they are known as “red tides”. Such water discoloration was noted in the Bible (Exodus) and Darwinmade microscopic observations of discoloured water from an apparent dinoflagellate bloom off Chileduring the voyage of the HMS Beagle.

Further information on the warning of algal toxin events can be found at :

http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/295194/0099726.pdf

Submitted by J-P Lacaze, W.Turrell, E. Bresnan and S.Fraser

 Zooplankton are very small animals that live in the sea.  They are not strong enough to swim against tides and currents and so drift along in the water.  There are tens of thousands of species of zooplankton and they range in size from being smaller than a grain of rice up to giant jellyfish that can reach two meters in diameter.  Zooplankton are divided into several categories based on their size but usually when scientists discuss zooplankton they are referring to a group sized between 0.2 mm to 2.0 cm known as the mesozooplankton.  Marine Scotland Science (MSS) collects mesozooplankton at the Stonehaven and Loch Ewe sites as part of their Coastal Ecosystem Monitoring Programme.  The data collected is being used to fulfil the requirements of European legislation relating to the marine environment such as the Marine Strategy Framework Directive as well as providing information on the status of the marine environment.

Bongo nets being lowered into the sea and towed through the water to capture zooplankton

Different types of zooplankton

 Zooplankton are divided into two main groups based on their life cycle.  These are (1) the holoplankton – animals that spend their whole life drifting as part of the plankton and (2) the meroplankton – animals that spend only some of their lifecycle in the plankton.

 (1) The holoplankton: The majority of animals in the holoplankton belong to a group of animals known as the crustaceans which include crabs and shrimps, as well as a group of tiny planktonic animals called copepods.  There are many different species of copepod and they range in size from less than 1.0 mm to about 5.0 mm in length. Most copepods feed on phytoplankton (very small algae) and smaller zooplankton by straining them out of the water column with filter-like feeding appendages around their mouths.  Other holoplanktonic animals include krill, water fleas, ostracods, amphipods, comb jellies and members of a group of animals called tunicates that are related to sea squirts.

Tiny copepods viewed with a light microscope. These animals are present in huge numbers and are an important food source for larger animals and some mammals.

Many animals such as fish and whales feed on krill similar to this.

  (2) The meroplankton: With the exception of mammals such as whales and seals, almost all animals that live in the sea spend the early stage of their life as part of the zooplankton community as eggs and/or larvae.  These stages then mature into animals such as fish that can swim against currents or animals that settle and live on the sea-floor such as  worms, crabs, lobsters, sea urchins and starfish.

Sardine eggs

Starfish larvae

Sea anemone larvae

Crab larva

An exception to this rule are some jellyfish.  They have an unusual life cycle as they spend most of their life as a colony of hydroids (sea firs) that are sedentary on the sea floor, often looking more like a delicate seaweed than an animal, before producing a swimming adult stage known as a medusa.  This is the form we commonly call a jellyfish.

Jellyfish medusa

Why are zooplankton important?

 Zooplankton form an important link in food webs.  They accumulate food energy made by the phytoplankton when they graze on them.  When zooplankton are eaten by fish larvae this energy passes up the food web.  The availability of zooplankton at the right time and place to provide food to fish larvae is believed to be an important factor in determining the size of fish stocks.  Any event causing a decline in the zooplankton population may have far-reaching effects on the ecosystem and the economy.

 Most animals in the plankton have short lifecycles of less than a year. These cycles are largely controlled by temperature, so long-term monitoring of zooplankton is required to reveal the impacts of climate change.

 Zooplankton also provide an important source of food to animals living on the sea floor as their waste sinks to the bottom of the sea and fertilises the seabed.

 Krill and copepods are often added to the diets of salmon and trout grown in fish farms to improve the colour of their flesh. Some countries have commercial fisheries for krill and copepods which are used as human and animal food as well as a health supplement because they are very high in omega 3 oils.

 Zooplankton studies at MSS

 Marine Scotland Science has a committed group of scientists who are investigating different aspects of the zooplankton community in Scottish waters.  A particular focus of its research is examining zooplankton abundance and diversity at the Coastal Ecosystem Monitoring Sites at Stonehaven (East Coast) and Loch Ewe (West Coast).  Over the next few months we will present some of our findings from these investigations in more detail.

 Did you know?

 It is estimated that the weight of just one type of krill in the sea is double that of all the humans in the world.

 During World War II, scientists researched the possibility of feeding theUKpopulation on zooplankton from Scottish sea lochs if food shortages became critical but, after trials, the scientists concluded it would be too difficult to catch enough plankton.  Professor Geoffrey Moore from University Marine Biological Station in Millport discovered the plans in archives at the Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) in Oban.

 More information on plankton can be found at http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/marine/marine-environment/species/plankton

 More information on the coastal ecosystem monitoring programme can be found at

http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/295194/0099701.pdf

 More information on the Marine Strategy Framework Directive can be found at

http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/marine/seamanagement/international/msfd

Article submitted by Kathryn Cook, Sheila Fraser and Eileen Bresnan

Mairi won the Intermediate Science & Maths prize which included a trophy, certificate and £1500.

Marine Scotland scientist John Dunn who was Mairi’s mentor along with Dr Kathryn Cook, said he was absolutely delighted by Mairi’s success at the Big Bang Science Fair, but not surprised.

“Mairi has been a delight to work with, and is one of the most focused and diligent young people, I have ever had the privilege to work with.  Her good nature and questing mind, as well as her methodical approach to what was a very difficult project, ensured that she completed it on time and achieved excellent results, which will greatly help workers in this field.

It should not be forgotten that this project was not made up for Mairi, this was a genuine job which the laboratory and several other laboratories, mainly in Scandinavia needed to have done, and it is to her credit that she successfully completed it.

Our faith in Mairi’s abilities has now been borne out by the fact that she won this competition, were she was examined by professional scientists in their own fields.

I really look forward to this young lady’s future, as I am sure it will be a bright one based on her considerable scientific  talent, and I only hope that we be able to employ her in Marine Scotland when the time comes.”

 Mairi’s placement at Marine Scotland was organised and supported by the Nuffield Foundation Science Bursary Scheme.  The Nuffield coordinator inScotland, Dr Frances Chapman of STEM Inspire commented “ I am thrilled with Mairi’s success – she was competing against a large number of very high quality projects from all over theUnited Kingdomand she should be incredibly proud of her achievement.”

Mairi worked with specimens collected at the Stonehaven Coastal Monitoring Site where weekly samples are collected and returned to the laboratory, allowing good working conditions with fresh samples and immediate access to the current conditions in the coastal environment.

  This is a chain of cells belonging to the diatom genus Skeletonema. They are one type of phytoplankton that are seen at the very onset of the spring bloom signalling that winter is over. As day length increases and the water column becomes more stable, conditions in the water become more favourable for phytoplankton growth.

 This  is a chain of cells belonging to the genus Chaetoceros. These diatoms are very common in Scottish waters. On rare occasions when they are very abundant in the water, these spines can irritate the gills of farmed fish.

  Cells belonging to the genus Pseudo-nitzschia cannot be identified to species level using the light microscope. They are divided into two size categories (< and > 3µm diameter). Thin (<3µm) Pseudo-nitzschia cells comprise a large part of the spring bloom diatom community in Scottish waters. Species within the fat (>3µm) Pseudo-nitzschia category in Scottish waters ( P. australis and P. seriata) have been confirmed as producers of the shellfish toxin, domoic acid. They become more abundant in the late summer and autumn.

Mediopyxis helysia was only given a proper name by scientists in 2006.  Currently it has only been observed at the Stonehaven monitoring site in theNorth Sea.

 Phytoplankton samples are full of cells during the spring bloom period and the analysis time can be more than double that of samples taken during the winter.

The spring bloom is an important natural event in the marine ecosystem and produces a lot of the food for zooplankton to consume, allowing them to grow and reproduce. There is some concern within the scientific community that the timing of the spring bloom may be influenced by climate change. Warming waters may encourage the spring bloom to occur earlier. This means that the main growth of phytoplankton may be over before the zooplankton are ready to use this food to reproduce. Phytoplankton data from the Marine Scotland Science Coastal Ecosystem Monitoring sites will be used to assess this.

Submitted by Sheila Fraser and Eileen Bresnan